Vietnam

Vietnam, situated on the eastern edge of the Indian Ocean, has a long history of maritime trade and cultural connections within the region. As part of the broader Southeast Asian trading network, Vietnam engaged in commerce with Indian, Chinese, Arab, and Malay traders, exchanging goods such as spices, ceramics, silk, and precious metals. This trade facilitated the flow of ideas, religions, and cultural practices between Vietnam and other Indian Ocean societies.

Kingdom Profiles

Srivijaya Empire
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Srivijaya, a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on Sumatra, significantly influenced Southeast Asia from the 7th to 11th century AD. Renowned for its maritime prowess, Srivijaya developed complex technology and fostered a booming trade economy. Interactions with neighboring powers like Mataram, Khom, and Champa, as well as trade agreements with China and cultural links with Bengal and the Islamic Caliphate, cemented Srivijaya's regional hegemony. Despite initial perceptions of being primarily maritime-based, recent research suggests Srivijaya was land-focused, utilizing fleets for logistical support. However, naval strategy was pivotal in maintaining control, transitioning from coercion to raiding fleets. Eventually, raids by the Chola Empire led to Srivijaya's demise in 1025 CE. Forgotten for centuries, its existence was rediscovered by French historian George Cœdès in 1918, highlighting its enduring historical significance.
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Duration: 7th–13th century
‍Language: Old Malay and Sanskrit
Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism
Preceded by: Kantoli Rule
Succeeded by: Melayu Kingdom
Social Scale: Monarchy

Sailendra dynasty

The Shailendra dynasty, an Indianized ruling family that emerged in 8th-century Java, marked a cultural renaissance in the region. Known for their promotion of Mahayana Buddhism, the Shailendras adorned the Kedu Plain of Central Java with magnificent Buddhist monuments, including the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ruling vast maritime territories while also engaging in agriculture, they held sway over the Mataram Kingdom in Central Java and, at times, the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra. Their inscriptions, using Old Javanese, Old Malay, and Sanskrit, reflect their political and religious significance, hinting at possible connections to Sumatra's Srivijaya. Marriage alliances with Srivijaya ensured stability, while conflicts with Java's Sanjaya dynasty ultimately led to their decline in Java. However, their legacy endured in Sumatra, Bali, and beyond, shaping the region's cultural landscape for centuries to come.
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Duration: 15th-16th Century
Language: Classical Malay
Religion: Sunni Islam
Preceded by: Singapura Kingdom
Succeeded by: Johor Sultanate, Perak Sultanate
Social Scale: Absolute monarchy

Kediri kingdom
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The Kediri Kingdom, thriving from 1042 to 1222 in East Java, was a vibrant Hindu-Buddhist realm renowned for its cultural and literary achievements. Despite limited archaeological remnants, this era witnessed significant advancements in classical literature, exemplified by masterpieces like Mpu Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha and Mpu Panuluh's Gatotkacasraya. Situated near modern Kediri city, the kingdom's capital flourished in the Brantas River valley, fostering trade with China and India. Chinese records, referring to Kediri as Tsao-wa or Chao-wa (Java), attest to frequent trade and cultural exchanges. As Srivijaya's influence waned in the 11th century, Kediri emerged as a regional power, controlling spice trade routes and fostering agricultural prosperity. The kingdom's rich cultural tapestry, depicted in literary works and historical accounts, portrays a society characterized by vibrant festivals, sophisticated governance, and artistic brilliance, marking Kediri's enduring legacy in Indonesian history.
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Duration: 1042–1222
Language: Old Javanese, Sanskrit
Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism, Animism
‍Preceded by: Kahuripan
‍Succeeded by: Singhasari
Social Scale: Monarchy

Ancient Vietnam's cultural landscape was profoundly shaped by Indian influence, primarily facilitated through vibrant maritime trade networks. As a crucial hub on the maritime Silk Road, Vietnam served as a nexus for the exchange of goods, ideas, and culture between India and Southeast Asia. Indian merchants brought with them not only valuable commodities such as spices, textiles, and precious metals but also rich cultural traditions, religious beliefs, and artistic practices. The influence of India on Vietnam's art and architecture is evident in the architectural marvels of My Son and the Cham towers, which display intricate carvings and sculptures inspired by Hindu mythology. Moreover, Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism found fertile ground in Vietnam, permeating its spiritual and philosophical landscape. The transmission of Indian artistic techniques and motifs influenced Vietnamese artistic traditions, including sculpture, ceramics, and lacquerware, contributing to the diverse cultural heritage of the region. Furthermore, Indian political influence extended through trade networks, as Indian merchants wielded significant economic power, often forming alliances and influencing local rulers. This exchange of goods and ideas facilitated by trade not only enriched Vietnam's cultural landscape but also contributed to the shaping of its political institutions and power structures.
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Kingdoms

Vietnam's historical trajectory has been shaped by various influences, including Indian impact mediated through regional dynamics. Initially, northern Vietnam saw the establishment of the kingdom of Nanyue around 207 BC, led by Triệu Đà, a Qin general. This marked the beginning of a complex relationship with China, as Nanyue was eventually incorporated into the Han dynasty's empire, retaining ties until the Tang dynasty's fall in the 10th century. Meanwhile, in south-central Vietnam, the Chams established the Hinduized kingdom of Champa around the 4th century, influenced by Indian culture. However, Vietnam's encounter with Indian influence primarily occurred through Buddhism, mediated by Chinese culture. Unlike neighboring Southeast Asian countries, Vietnam experienced minimal Hindu influence directly, mainly via Champa. Instead, Buddhism, originating from India but transmitted through Chinese channels, left a lasting imprint on Vietnamese culture, contributing to its religious and philosophical landscape.

Religious History
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Vietnam's religious history reflects a diverse tapestry of beliefs shaped by centuries of cultural exchange, including significant influence from India. While indigenous traditions like Đạo Mẫu and Confucianism have deep roots in Vietnamese society, Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism left an enduring mark. Indian influence began with the arrival of Hindu traders and Brahmin priests who introduced Hinduism to the region, leading to the establishment of the ancient kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam, which embraced Hinduism as its state religion. Subsequently, Buddhism gained prominence, especially during the reign of the Ly and Tran dynasties, with Indian Buddhist missionaries contributing to its spread. Indian influence is evident in Vietnam's temple architecture, religious practices, and iconography, as seen in sites like the My Son Sanctuary, adorned with Hindu deities and motifs. This interplay of indigenous beliefs and Indian spirituality highlights the dynamic religious history of Vietnam shaped by cross-cultural interactions.

Art and Architecture
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The art and architecture of ancient Indonesia bear the indelible marks of cultural exchange and synthesis, reflecting a rich tapestry of influences from various civilizations. From as early as the 2nd century, Indian culture permeated the archipelago, shaping artistic expressions in profound ways. Hindu-Buddhist states like Tarumanagara, Srivijaya, and Sailendra flourished between the 5th and 15th centuries, leaving behind awe-inspiring monuments such as Borobudur and Prambanan. These architectural marvels, with their intricate carvings and towering structures, exemplify the fusion of Indian artistic motifs with local traditions. The Borobudur temple complex, for instance, showcases not only Buddhist iconography but also incorporates indigenous Javanese design elements, illustrating the synthesis of cultures. Moreover, maritime powers like Srivijaya facilitated cultural exchange through trade routes, further enriching artistic expressions with influences from China, Southeast Asia, and beyond. This interplay of diverse cultural influences culminated in the creation of unique art and architecture that continues to captivate and inspire to this day.

Exploring the Heritage wealth

The map showcases cultural sites influenced or connected to India, dispersed throughout Vietnam

Po Nagar Tower

Coordinates: 12.26545899617468, 109.19545010464522

Po Nagar is a Cham temple tower in Nha Trang, Vietnam, founded before 781 and dedicated to Yan Po Nagar, identified with Buddhist goddesses Bhagavati and Hariti. Historical inscriptions reveal instances of damage, restoration, and offerings, including the stealing of a gold statue by the Khmer in 950. The temple continued to receive endowments and underwent changes in ownership over the centuries. In the 17th century, the Vietnamese occupied Champa and took control of the temple tower, renaming it Thiên Y Thánh Mâu Tower. Vietnamese legends about the goddess and the tower have emerged over time.

Po Nagar in Nha Trang by Christophe95 via Wikimedia Commons

Po Nagar tower temple east face, Mahisasuramardini Durga goddess on buffalo by Dragfyre via Wikimedia Commons

Po Nagar temple Cham inscription by Ziegler175 via Wikimedia Commons

My Son Sanctuary

Coordinates: 15.769172790142486, 108.11946854539924

Mỹ Sơn is a cluster of abandoned and partially ruined Shaiva Hindu temples in central Vietnam, constructed between the 4th and 14th centuries by the Kings of Champa. Dedicated to the veneration of God according to Shaivism, particularly Bhadreshvara, the temples served as a religious site for Champa kings and a burial place for Cham royalty and heroes. Located near the village of Duy Phú, it was a significant archaeological site in Mainland Southeast Asia, but much of its architecture was destroyed by US bombing during the Vietnam War. Despite this, Mỹ Sơn is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, representing an example of cultural evolution and an extinct Asian civilization.

Son Sancturary by Lionel Lalaité via UNESCO

My Son A1 Yoni by [Tycho] ^talk, http://shansov.net via wikimedia commons

Linga 1 (My Son) by Khương Việt Hà via wikimedia commons

Temple B5 at Mỹ Sơn, Quang Nam province, Vietnam by Thomas Hirsch via wikimedia commons

My Son Tower detail by DoktorMax via wikimedia commons

Poshanu Cham Towers

Coordinates: 15.61602867558376, 108.44252823759612

Poshanu Cham Towers, situated on Mr Heaven Hill about 7 km northeast of Phan Thiet City, are significant cultural relics of the Champa Kingdom. Built in the second half of the eighth century, these towers, dedicated to the worship of God Shiva, include three main structures—the main tower, medium tower, and small tower. The Linga and Yoni symbols inside the main tower represent Shiva and reflect Cham beliefs in reproduction and growth. Initially built to worship God Shiva, a tower was added in the 15th century to honor Princess Po Sah Inu, giving rise to the name Poshanu. Despite some disappearance of stone bulls over the years, the towers have undergone recent renovations and attract visitors for religious ceremonies performed by the Cham community.

Thap Po Sah Inu temples complex, Phu Hai by Ms Sarah Welch via wikimedia commons

Poshanu Cham Towers by Erwin Verbruggen from Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Thap Po Sah Inu temples complex, Phu Hai by Ms Sarah Welch via Wikimedia Commons

Thap Doi Twin Towers

Coordinates: 13.786376195063143, 109.21111561501591

The Thap Doi Towers, also known as the 'Twin Towers,' are easily accessible, located just two kilometers from the city center. Built in the late 12th to early 13th century, these red brick towers stand side by side in a small city park surrounded by tropical vegetation. The towers, one at 20 meters tall and the other around 18 meters, feature shrines inside with exposed ceilings. The architectural style, sharing similarities with Angkor sites, reflects cultural exchanges between Champa and the Khmer Kingdom. The towers have become a popular Instagram spot, making early morning visits advisable due to high local traffic.

Thap Doi Towers sit humbly in a small city park, a quiet oasis amongst the hustle and bustle. Via vietcetera.com

Thap Doi Cham Hindu complex by Ms Sarah Welch via Wikimedia Commons

Nhan Tower

Coordinates: 13.08248963617378, 109.30166306412751

The Nhan Tower, the last relic of the Champa Kingdom, holds historical significance and is a symbol of Phu Yen. Situated on a hilltop near Nhan Mountain on the northern bank of Da Rang River, this national art-architectural relic was constructed over 800 years ago as a place of worship for the ancient Cham people. Also known as Cham Tower, it was almost destroyed during French rule but was later reconstructed during Ngo Dinh Diem's reign. Standing at over 65 feet high, the tower features a unique shape with lotus flower carvings and a top resembling a tern. Illuminated at night, it offers a mysterious charm. Notably, its structure allows tourists to enjoy a panoramic view of the city from the ground floor underneath the tower. Built in the 11th century, the 20-meter-high tower has three well-proportioned parts.

Thap Nhan Hindu temple, Tuy Hoa, Phu Yen province by Ms Sarah Welch via wikimedia commons

Hindu artwork in Thap Nhan Tower park by Ms Sarah Welch via wikimedia commons

Mariamman Temple

Coordinates: 10.77264060389507, 106.69561350866955

10.77264060389507, 106.69561350866955The Mariamman Temple in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, is dedicated to the Hindu goddess Mariamman and was constructed in the late 19th century by Palaniappa Thevar, a member of the Tamil Nadu trade community from India. The temple is currently managed by the Vietnamese Indian Children under the guidance of the late priest Attangudi Lakshmanan Chettiar. The architecture features a 12m high Raja-gopuram with statues of various deities, including Ganesha, Muruga, Lakshmi, Shiva, and others. The main hall inside the temple is a notable feature, and the outer walls are adorned with statues of Mariamman and other Hindu gods. Serving around fifty Tamil families, the temple caters to a predominantly Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese devotee base who have experienced the divine powers of Mariamman.

Mariamman Temple, Ho Chi Minh City by 源義信 via wikimedia commons

Subramaniam Temple

Coordinates: 10.774356965769465, 106.69980315099889

The Subramaniam Temple, situated in the center of Saigon, was constructed by Indian merchants during the 19th century. Renowned for its navagrahas, each adorned in vibrant silk robes, the temple features images of Hindu deities such as Lord Shiva, Krishna, and Goddess Laxmi. Despite years of neglect, the temple has undergone restoration and is now regarded as one of the most beautiful temples in Vietnam.

Subraminiam Temple via wanderon.in

Sri Thenday Yuttha Panin Temple

Coordinates: 10.774356965769465, 106.69980315099889

The Shri Thenday Yuttha Panin Temple in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, is renowned as one of the best Hindu temples in the country. Dedicated to Lord Murugan, it blends Dravidian and Vietnamese architectural styles, featuring a captivating tower adorned with intricate carvings of Hindu deities. The temple, serving as a spiritual haven amid urban surroundings, attracts devotees and tourists with its vibrant colors, elaborate decorations, and tranquil ambiance. Beyond its role as a place of worship, the temple serves as a cultural cornerstone, fostering connections between the Hindu and Vietnamese communities, making it culturally significant and spiritually vibrant.

Sri Thenday Yuttha Panin Temple via tripadvisor

Vietnam

Kingdom Profiles

Exploring the Heritage wealth

Po Nagar Tower

My Son Sanctuary

Poshanu Cham Towers

Thap Doi Twin Towers

Nhan Tower

Mariamman Temple

Subramaniam Temple

Sri Thenday Yuttha Panin Temple

Explore the History and culture of Vietnam

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