Southasia

South Asia and China

South Asia, a region of rich diversity and vibrant cultures, encompasses countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and the Maldives. From the majestic Himalayan mountain ranges to the lush green landscapes of the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins, South Asia is a tapestry of breathtaking natural beauty. Its cultural heritage is equally diverse, with a blend of ancient traditions, languages, religions, and cuisines.

South Asia has long been a hub of vibrant trade, facilitated by its strategic location and rich resources. From the ancient Silk Road to modern maritime routes, South Asia has been a crossroads of commerce, connecting the East and West.

Kingdom Profiles

Maurya Empire
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The Maurya Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, emerged as a significant power in South Asia, with its heartland in Magadha and a centralized administration based in Pataliputra. Chandragupta's conquests expanded the empire westwards, absorbing territories left by Alexander the Great's satraps and defeating Seleucus I, thus extending control beyond the Indus River. Under the Mauryas, South Asia experienced economic prosperity and cultural flourishing, facilitated by a well-organized system of finance and administration. Ashoka's reign saw the empire's zenith, marked by centralized rule, the embrace of Buddhism, and missionary activities that spread the faith across the region.
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Duration: 322BCE to 185 BCE Language: Sanskrit, Maghahi Prakrit
Religion: Brahmanism, Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivikism, Greek polytheism, Zoroastrianism
Preceded by: Nanda Empire
Succeeded by: Shunga Empire, Satvahana Kingdom
Social Scale: monarchy

Mughal Empire
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The Mughal Empire, an early modern powerhouse in South Asia, expanded its dominion from the fringes of the Indus River Basin to the highlands of Assam and the Deccan Plateau in South India. Founded in 1526 by Babur, the empire reached its zenith under the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar, around 1600, and lasted until 1720, coinciding with the reign of Aurangzeb. Despite its military origins, the empire employed administrative innovations to unify its diverse territories and peoples. Agricultural taxes, instituted by Akbar, fueled the empire's wealth and economic growth while fostering greater integration into larger markets. This centralized power, facilitated India's economic expansion and cultural flourishing, epitomized by architectural wonders like the Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which remains a symbol of the Mughal Empire's enduring legacy in South Asia.

Duration: 1526 to 1857
Language: Persian, Udru, Hindustani
Religion: State religion: Sunni Islam (Hanafi) Din-i Ilahi (1582–1605)
Preceded by: Delhi Sultanate
Succeeded by: Maratha Rule, British Raj
Social Scale: Unitary absolute monarchy under a federal structure

Chola Empire
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The Chola Empire, known as the Imperial Cholas, emerged as a dominant force in medieval South India. Renowned for their maritime prowess, the Cholas conducted expeditions to the Ganges, raided cities of the Srivijaya Empire in Sumatra, and maintained diplomatic ties with China, showcasing their influence across South, Southeast, and East Asia. Notable for their centralized government and patronage of Tamil literature and temple architecture, the Cholas left a lasting legacy through monumental structures like the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, renowned for its intricate design. Their patronage of art, particularly the sculpting technique used in Chola bronzes of Hindu deities, influenced the artistic traditions of Southeast Asia, exemplifying the enduring impact of Chola culture beyond the Indian subcontinent.
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Duration: 7th to 13th Century
Language: Middle Tamil, Sanskrit
Religion: Hinduism
‍Preceded by: Pandya, Pallava and Chera Dynasty
‍Succeeded by: Kaktiya and Hoysala Dynasty
Social Scale: Monarchy

Jaffna Kingdom
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The Jaffna kingdom, spanning from 1215 to 1619 CE, was a significant historical entity in northern Sri Lanka. Initially established around the town of Jaffna on the Jaffna peninsula, it emerged as a formidable force in the region. Despite periods of subordination to external powers such as the Pandyan Empire and later the Kingdom of Kotte, the Jaffna kingdom asserted its independence and focused on economic development, particularly in pearl trading and land revenue. This period also saw the flourishing of Tamil literature and the construction of Hindu temples. However, the arrival of the Portuguese in 1505 marked the beginning of political challenges, ultimately leading to the kingdom's demise in 1619.
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Duration: 1215 to 1619
‍Language: Tamil, Sinhala
Religion: Hinduism
Preceded by: Polonnaruwa Kingdom, Chola & Pandya dynasty
Succeeded by: Portuguese Ceylon
Social Scale: Monarchy

Tang Dynasty
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The Tang dynasty, reigning from 618 to 907, epitomized the zenith of Chinese civilization, characterized by cosmopolitanism and unprecedented prosperity. Established by the Li family amid the Sui dynasty's decline, the Tang era saw stability and progress, despite a brief interruption by Empress Wu Zetian's rule. Despite challenges like the An Lushan Rebellion, the Tang's civil service system and military strength upheld its dominance. Chang'an, its capital, thrived as the world's most populous city, while its cultural influence extended to neighbouring East Asian nations. The Tang era endures as a golden age of Chinese poetry, art, and innovation, leaving an indelible legacy in history.
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Duration: 618–690, 705–907
Language: Chinese
Religion: Chinese Buddhism, Taoism, Folk religion, Christianity, Islam
‍Preceded by: Sui dynasty, Western and Eastern Turkic Khaganate
Succeeded by: Later Liang, Yang Wu, Wuyue
Social Scale: Absolute monarchy

Kingdom of Nepal
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The Kingdom of Nepal, founded in 1768 by King Prithvi Narayan Shah, endured for 240 years until it was abolished in 2008. Throughout its history, Nepal experienced significant political upheavals and external pressures. Despite victorious military campaigns and territorial expansions, including conflicts with Tibet and British India, Nepal faced challenges from internal power struggles and external forces such as the Anglo-Nepalese War. The rise of the Rana dynasty in the mid-19th century marked a period of authoritarian rule and exploitation, ultimately leading to the monarchy's subservience to the prime ministerial office. The transition to a federal democratic republic in 2008 marked a pivotal moment in Nepal's history, culminating in the formal abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a secular state.
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Duration: 1768 to 2008
Language: Nepali
Religion: Hinduism
‍Preceded by: Malla Dynasty
Succeeded by: Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
Social Scale: Unitary absolute monarchy

In ancient times, India's cultural, political, and economic exchange extended across South Asia, leaving a profound imprint on the region's development. Through trade, migration, and diplomatic relations, this exchange played a pivotal role in shaping the societies of present-day Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and the Maldives and to some extent far-off nations like China & Iran as well. The exchange of ideas, languages, religions, and technologies fostered a rich tapestry of cultural diversity throughout South Asia. Architectural wonders like the ancient city of Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Pakistan and the Buddhist stupas of Nepal stand as testaments to India's deep historical connections with its neighbours. Ancient Indian texts and scriptures, such as the Vedas and the Ramayana, resonated and adapted in various South Asian cultures, contributing to a shared cultural heritage that transcended political boundaries. The intricate network of trade routes spanning South Asia served as conduits not only for goods but also for the dissemination of culture, ideas, and beliefs. India's profound influence radiated across these routes, facilitating the spread of languages, religions, art forms, and culinary traditions. From the silk routes to the spice trade, India's cultural exchange through trade routes remains a testament to the enduring power of cross-cultural interactions in shaping the identities of societies across South Asia and beyond.

Silk Road
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The Silk Road, an ancient network of trade routes spanning thousands of miles across Asia, played a pivotal role in facilitating cultural exchange between diverse civilizations. Stretching from China to the Mediterranean, this intricate web of routes enabled the exchange of goods, ideas, religions, technologies, and artistic expressions between East and West. In ancient times, the Silk Road served as a conduit for the transmission of goods such as silk, spices, precious metals, and ceramics, but its significance extended far beyond commerce. It facilitated the exchange of languages, philosophies, and belief systems, fostering cultural diffusion and innovation. Buddhist monks travelled along the Silk Road, spreading their teachings and establishing monasteries, while Islamic scholars disseminated knowledge in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Artisans and craftsmen exchanged techniques and styles, leading to the development of new artistic forms and designs. The Silk Road also facilitated the spread of religions such as Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism, contributing to the cultural pluralism of the regions it traversed.

Maritime trade
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In ancient South Asia, maritime trade played a pivotal role in connecting the region with distant lands and cultures. The coastal areas of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives served as vibrant hubs of maritime commerce, facilitating exchanges of goods, ideas, and cultures with regions as far-reaching as Southeast Asia, East Africa, and the Middle East. The Indian Ocean, often referred to as the "Monsoon Marketplace," was navigated by skilled sailors who utilized the seasonal monsoon winds to facilitate their voyages. South Asian merchants traded a diverse array of commodities, including spices, textiles, precious stones, and ceramics, which were highly sought after in foreign markets. Ports such as Lothal in present-day Gujarat and Tamralipta in present-day West Bengal emerged as bustling centers of trade, where merchants from different parts of the world converged to conduct business transactions. Maritime trade not only stimulated economic prosperity but also fostered cultural exchange and the spread of ideas, religions, and languages across the Indian Ocean basin, leaving an indelible mark on the history and development of ancient South Asia.

Art and Architecture
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The Indian influence on art and architecture in ancient South Asia is profound and enduring, reflecting a rich tapestry of cultural exchange and innovation. From the towering stupas of Buddhism to the intricately carved temples of Hinduism, India's artistic and architectural legacy has left an indelible mark across the region. In ancient times, South Asian kingdoms drew inspiration from Indian architectural styles, incorporating elements such as ornate carvings, intricate sculptures, and majestic domes into their own structures. The spread of Buddhism from India further accelerated this cultural exchange, leading to the construction of magnificent stupas and monasteries throughout South Asia, including iconic sites such as the Great Stupa of Sanchi in present-day Madhya Pradesh, India, and the ancient city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. Additionally, Indian art forms such as sculpture, painting, and metallurgy flourished in South Asia, influencing local artistic traditions and contributing to the region's vibrant cultural landscape. Through trade routes, diplomatic missions, and religious pilgrimages, India's artistic and architectural heritage became an integral part of ancient South Asian civilizations, shaping their identity and leaving a lasting legacy that continues to resonate to this day.

The Chaddanta Jataka story carved on the gateway at Sanchi by Anandajoti Bhikkhu

The impact of cultural exchange on the cultural stories of South Asia is profound and multifaceted, reflecting centuries of interactions between diverse communities and civilizations. Through trade, migration, conquest, and religious dissemination, South Asia has been a melting pot of cultures, beliefs, and traditions. As a result, the region's rich tapestry of cultural stories encompasses a wide array of influences, ranging from indigenous folklore and mythologies to elements borrowed from neighboring regions and beyond. Hindu epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, for example, have been retold and adapted in various South Asian languages and artistic forms, incorporating local customs and beliefs. Similarly, Buddhist Jataka tales and Islamic Sufi poetry have left indelible marks on the cultural landscape of the region, inspiring generations of storytellers and artists. The diversity of South Asia's cultural stories reflects the interconnectedness of its peoples and the continuous exchange of ideas and narratives that have shaped the collective imagination of the region.

Exploring the Heritage wealth

The map showcases cultural sites influenced or connected to India, dispersed throughout Southasia

Gurdwara Karte Parwan

Afghanistan
Coordinates: 34.53487715456372, 69.13496564146848

The Karte Parwan Gurdwara in Kabul, Afghanistan, is a significant Sikh place of worship. Before the Soviet–Afghan War and the Afghan Civil War (1992–1996), Kabul had a substantial Sikh population. Many Sikhs fled during the conflicts, but some returned after the removal of the Taliban regime in 2001. As of 2008, an estimated 2,500 Sikhs reside in Afghanistan. The Gurdwara faced attacks, notably in October 2021 when individuals affiliated with the Taliban damaged its interior. In June 2022, ISIS-K militants attacked the Gurdwara, resulting in a gunfight with Islamic Emirate soldiers and casualties, including the death of a Sikh worshipper.

Inside the Gurdwara Sahib in Karte Parwan, Kabul, Afghanistan, by Singhalong100 via Wikimedia Commons

Gurdwara Sahib in Karte Parwan, Kabul, Afghanistan, by Singhalong100 via Wikimedia Commons

Hinglaj Mata Mandir

Pakistan
Coordinates: 25.514705297665184, 65.5179681243892

Hinglaj Mata, also known as Hinglaj Devi, is a Hindu temple in Hinglaj, Balochistan, Pakistan, situated in the Hingol National Park. It is a Shakti Peetha, dedicated to Durga or Devi, and is one of the three Shakti Peethas in Pakistan. The shrine gained popularity as a unifying point for Pakistan's Hindu communities. The Hinglaj Yatra, the largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan, attracts over 250,000 people during the spring. The temple is in a natural cave, and worshippers venerate a divine form of Hinglaj Mata. Legend associates it with the creation of Shakti Peethas, with Sati's head believed to have fallen at Hinglaj.

Hinglaj Mata Mandir Cave entrance, Pakistan, by Abrar Alam Khan via Wikimedia commons

Hinglaj Mata (Rani ki Mandir) by Mhtoori Via Wikimedia Commons

Hinglaj goddess at Hinglaj Mata Mandir by Bilal Mirza via Wikimedia Commons

Hinglaj Mata (Rani ki Mandir) by Mhtoori Via Wikimedia Commons

The oath area Hinglaj Mata by Tayyab Malikk via Wikimedia Commons

Katas Raj, also known as Qila Katas

Pakistan
Coordinates: 32.724205197507395, 72.95172932652635

The Shri Katas Raj Temples, also known as Qila Katas, is a complex of Hindu temples in Pakistan's Punjab province, located in the Potohar Plateau region. Connected by walkways, the temples surround a sacred pond named Katas. According to Puranas, the pond was formed from Shiva's teardrops. The site is associated with the Mahābhārata, believed to be where the Pandava brothers spent part of their exile and engaged in a riddle contest with the Yakshas. Hindu tradition holds that Krishna laid the temple's foundation. The complex is part of municipal committee Choa Saidanshah and was visited by Lal Krishna Advani in 2005. Restoration works began in 2006, with ongoing improvements in 2017. The temples' location is near Kallar Kahar, connected to the M2 Motorway, approximately 100 km from Tilla Jogian. The name "Katas Raj" is believed to come from the Sanskrit word "kataksha," meaning "tearful eyes," reflecting the origin of the sacred pond.

Katas raj temple katas chakwal by Magie107 via Wikimedia Commons

Katas Raj temples by Muhaddas Via Wikimedia Commons

Tears of Lord Shiva - Katas Raj Temples by Muhammad Salman Shahid Via Wikimedia Commons

Katas Raj Temples by Alamgirkhan001 Via Wikimedia Commons

General view of Katas village, with old temples in foreground, 1875 by Joseph David Beglar via Wikimedia Commons

Katas Raj Temple, Lahore, Pakistan by Zhyusuf via Wikimedia Commons

Satghara Temple Pond View by Khurramafzalmalik Via Wikimedia Commons

Gurudwara Janam Asthan Sahib

Pakistan
Coordinates: 31.44544233782971, 73.69631551112889

Gurdwara Janam Asthan, also known as Gurdwara Nankana Sahib, is a revered Sikh shrine located in Nankana Sahib, Punjab, Pakistan. Situated at the site believed to be Guru Nanak's birthplace to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta, the gurdwara holds significant religious importance. Nankana Sahib, previously known as Rāi Bhoi Kī Talvaṇḍī, was renamed in honor of Guru Nanak. The gurdwara is part of a group of nine important gurdwaras in Nankana Sahib and attracts Sikh yatris on pilgrimage routes in Pakistan.

Gurdwara Janam Asthan (151718) by Shahzaib Damn Cruze Via Wikimedia Commons

Nankana Sahib Old Photograph (Early 20th century) by Dhanna Singh Chahal 'Patialvi' via Wikimedia Commons

Photograph of Gurdwara Janam Asthan, Nankana Sahib taken before partition in 1947 by Satpal Singh 'Danish' Via Wikimedia Commons

Photograph of Gurdwara Janam Asthan, Nankana Sahib by Satpal Singh 'Danish' via Wikimedia Commons

Gurdwara Janam Asthan of Baba Guru Nanik Dev Ji, Nankana Sahib, Punjab, Pakistan by Shahzaib Damn Cruze Via Wikimedia Commons

Badshahi Mosque

Pakistan
Coordinates: 31.588192648582524, 74.30979137306332

The Badshahi Mosque, located in Lahore, Pakistan, is an iconic Mughal-era congregational mosque built between 1671 and 1673 by Emperor Aurangzeb. It is a prime example of Mughal architecture, featuring a red sandstone exterior with marble inlay. The mosque, situated opposite Lahore Fort, is the largest of its kind from the Mughal era and ranks as the third-largest mosque in Pakistan. During the Sikh Empire and British rule, it underwent various uses, including being a stable and garrison. The mosque's restoration began in the mid-19th century, and it is now a symbol of Pakistan's cultural heritage.

Badshahi Mosque or the 'Emperor's Mosque' by Shahzaib Damn Cruze via Wikimedia Commons

Badshahi Mosque in 1880s by Columbia University Website & ebay, May 2008 via Wikimedia Commons

Badshahi Mosque Main Hall by Rao Umair Khan via Wikimedia commons

Gate of Mosque from Minaret by Bourne, Samuel (photographer) via V&A museum

View from palace in fort, Lahore by Bourne & Shepherd (artists) Via V&A museum

Shah Jahan Mosque

Pakistan
Coordinates: 24.747387542275703, 67.92800343544603

The Shah Jahan Mosque, also known as the Jamia Masjid of Thatta, is a 17th-century mosque in Thatta, Sindh, Pakistan. Built during the reign of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, it is renowned for its elaborate tile work, considered the most intricate in South Asia, and its unique geometric brickwork. Influenced by Central Asian architecture, the mosque was constructed as a token of gratitude by Shah Jahan, who sought refuge in Thatta and was impressed by the hospitality he received from the Sindhi people. The mosque exhibits Timurid influences introduced during Shah Jahan's campaigns in Central Asia, reflecting the Emperor's appreciation for the region's culture.

Courtyard of the Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta (Sindh, Pakistan) by A.Savin Via Wikimedia Commons

Shah Jahan mosque by Amanasad83 via Wikimedia Commons

Shah Jahan Mosque Interior by Umair Ulhaque Via Wikimedia Commons

Interior view of one of the domes of the Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta (Sindh, Pakistan) by A.Savin Via Wikimedia Commons

Pashupatinath Temple

Nepal
Coordinates: 27.710701942569624, 85.34878030912925

The Pashupatinath Temple, located in Kathmandu, Nepal, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Pashupati, a form of Shiva. Designated as a World Heritage Site in 1979, the temple complex spans 246 hectares along the Bagmati River, featuring a vast collection of temples, ashrams, images, and inscriptions. It is part of UNESCO's recognition of the Kathmandu Valley. With 518 mini-temples and a main pagoda house, the Pashupatinath Temple is a significant pilgrimage site and one of the Paadal Petra Sthalams on the continent.

Courtyard of the Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta (Sindh, Pakistan) by A.Savin Via Wikimedia Commons

Night aarti at Pashupatinath Temple by Chainwit. via Wikimedia commons

Pashupati Temple Gajur (Arch) Pashupatinath Temple Kathmandu Nepal byRajesh Dhungana via Wikimedia commons

Pashupatinath Temple by Bijay Chaurasia via Wikimedia commons

Image of the Siva Linga shrine at Pashupatinath Temple on the Bagmati River, Kathmandu, Nepal by Wheeler, Mary Binney via Jstor

Guhyeshwari Temple

Nepal
Coordinates: 27.71148883424228, 85.35346378214122

The Guhyeshwari Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal, is a revered Hindu temple dedicated to Guhyeshwari or Adi Shakti, located about 1 km east of Pashupatinath Temple. It is considered a Shakti Peetha, associated with the legend of Sati's self-immolation. Renovated in the 17th century by King Pratap Malla, it holds significance for Tantric worshippers. The name "Guhyeshwari" signifies the goddess of the cave, aligned with the legend of Sati. The temple is central to Tantric rituals, and various stotras are dedicated to the goddess. It is part of the Shakti Peethas, associated with the mythology of Daksha yaga and Sati's sacrifice. The temple is revered for Tantra practices and is particularly crowded during Dashain and Navaratri.

Guhyeshwari Temple Pashupatinath Kathmandu Nepal by Rajesh Dhungana via Wikimedia Commons

Shivalaya Artistic Shivalya Guhyeshwari Pashupatinath by Rajesh Dhungana via Wikimedia Commons

Guheshwori Temple Koteshwor Mahadev Temple Koteshwor Kathmandu by Rajesh Dhungana via Wikimedia Commons

Guhyeshwari Temple Pashupatinath Kathmandu Nepal by Rajesh Dhungana via Wikimedia Commons

Guhyeshwari Shaktipeeth Temple by Gaurav Dhwaj Khadka via Wikimedia Commons

Bandar Abbas Vishnu Temple

Iran
Coordinates: 27.18392265076309, 56.27986544025492

The Lord Vishnu Temple in Bandar Abbas, Iran, is a historic monument constructed in 1892 during Mohammad Hassan Khan Sa'd-ol-Malek's reign. Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, it was built by the Indian community associated with the British East India Company, showcasing the commercial ties between Iranian and Indian merchants. The temple features a central square room with a distinctive dome, deviating from typical Iranian architecture. Constructed with coral stone, mortar, mud, and Louis chalk, the site includes painted images of Krishna in corridors and rooms, with additional rooms for students.

Mabad-Hendooha by Hasanbardal via Wikimedia commons

19th-century image of Bandar Abbas Aishnu temple by احمد اقتداری via Wikimedia Commons

Temple dome by Ali nikkhesal61 via Wikimedia Commons

Mural inside temple by HasanBardal via Wikimedia Commons

Bandar Abbas Vishnu Temple by Mohammad Hossein Geranmayeh Via Wikimedia Commons

Sri Chaitanya Mandir

Bangladesh
Coordinates: 24.804885375439707, 92.04223376669364

Sri Chaitanya Dev Temple in Sylhet, Bangladesh, is a 500-year-old temple, making it one of the oldest in the country. Located approximately 45 kilometers away from the town center, the temple holds significance as the ancestral place of Sri Chaitanya Dev, a prominent figure in the Vaishnava sect. It attracts thousands of visitors annually from around the world, serving as a landmark for the Hindu religion. The temple is renowned for its architectural charm and religious ambiance, making it a popular Hindu tourist destination in Sylhet, Bangladesh.

Kantajew Temple

Bangladesh
Coordinates: 25.79064878093723, 88.6665485765279

Kantanagar Temple, also known as Kantaji Temple, is a Hindu temple located in Dinajpur, Bangladesh. Built in the 18th century, the temple is dedicated to Krishna and Rukmini, particularly associated with the Radha-Krishna cult in Bengal. Maharaja Pran Nath initiated its construction in 1704 CE, and it was completed during the reign of his son Raja Ramnath in 1722 CE. The temple showcases terracotta architecture, although its original nine spires were destroyed in a 1897 earthquake.

Kantanji's Temple fornt view in Dinajpur by Nasar-A-Tawhid Siddiquey --(Naogaon) via Wikimedia Commons

Kantaji Temple in 1870's by Ravenshaw, John Henry via Wikimedia Commons

Terracotta of Kantnagar Temple by অভিজিৎ দাস via Wikimedia Commons

Kantaji Temple 1880 via photovintagefrance (ARNAVILLE, France)

Kantajew Temple, Teracota by Tanvir Ahmed Seajar via Wikimedia Commons

Sri Muthumariamman Temple

Sri Lanka
Coordinates: 7.477559793630028, 80.62386156063364

The Muthumariamman Temple, located in Matale, Sri Lanka, is dedicated to Mariamman, the goddess of rain and fertility. Built in 1874 and funded by the Nattukkottai Chettiar, the temple is used by both Hindus and Buddhists. Originally a small statue prayed to by Hindu people, it was developed by the locals in Matale. The temple's significant features include a 32.9 m high Gopuram ('Raja Koburum'), one of the largest in Sri Lanka, completed in 2007. The temple hosts annual festivals, including a chariot festival, usually coinciding with Magam on a Full Moon Poya Day. The chariot ceremony involves conveying statues of Hindu deities around the city on ornate chariots during special events.

Muthumariamman Tempel entrance in Matale by Z thomas via Wikimedia Commons

Muthumariamman Tempel gopuram in Matale by Z thomas via Wikimedia Commons

Muthumariamman Tempel entrance in Matale by Z thomas via Wikimedia Commons

Muthumariamman Tempel in Matale by Z thomas via Wikimedia Commons

Koneswaram Temple

Sri Lanka
Coordinates: 8.58273002614633, 81.24534486630971

The Koneswaram Temple in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, is a classical-medieval Hindu temple complex located on Konesar Malai. As one of the Pancha Ishwarams, it holds significant religious importance and features a main shrine to Shiva, known as Kona-Ishvara. Built during ancient times, the temple exhibits Dravidian architecture, including a thousand-pillared hall ("Aayiram Kaal Mandapam") and a Jagati. The temple, praised for its architecture and sculptural ornamentation, suffered destruction during colonial attacks in the 17th century but has been partially restored. Pilgrims visit the temple, and the annual Koneswaram Temple Ther Thiruvilah festival involves various rituals and celebrations. The site has historical associations, including being mentioned in ancient texts like the Vayu Purana, Mahabharata, and Ramayana.

Koneswaram Temple by Alexey Komarov via wikimedia commons

The Swami Rock before the Koneswaram temple was rebuilt on 1950 Via Wikimedia Commons

Ravana's Cleft, Trincomalee. Seen from the Swami rock by AntanO Via Wikimedia Commons

Nallur Kandaswamy temple

Sri Lanka
Coordinates: 9.674568015522842, 80.02980366632401

The Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil is a Hindu temple in Nallur, Northern Province, Sri Lanka, dedicated to the presiding deity Murugan. The original temple was founded in 948 AD and was developed in the 15th century by Parakramabahu VI King of Kotte. It served as the capital of the Jaffna kings, with the royal palace nearby. The current temple, rebuilt after the destruction by the Portuguese in 1624, has multiple shrines dedicated to different forms of Murugan. The original temple's location is now occupied by St. James' Church. The temple's historical significance is linked to the Jaffna kingdom and its rulers.

Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil by David Stanley via wikimedia commons

Nallur inner courtyard by Kanatonian via Wikimedia Commons

Nallur temple by Thivagaranp Via wikimedia commons

Dambakola Patuna Sangamitta Temple

Sri Lanka
Coordinates: 9.786754589822, 79.9435643951609

Dambakola Patuna Sangamitta Temple, located in Dambakolapatuna in the Jaffna district, is an ancient and spiritually significant Buddhist temple. It holds historical importance as the landing site of Arhat Sangamitta, who brought a sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa in the Anuradhapura era. The temple, situated in the Port of Jambukola, was restricted during the civil war in Sri Lanka but has now reopened for public access.

Buddhist stupa with Buddha statue at the Dambakola Patuna Sangamitta Temple complex Jaffna Sri Lanka by Imran Ahmed via Pixels.com

Kaiyuan Temple (Quanzhou)

China
Coordinates: 24.9168, 118.581

Kaiyuan Temple, located in Quanzhou, China, is the largest Buddhist temple in Fujian province, covering 78,000 square meters. Originally built in 685 or 686 during the Tang dynasty, it was initially named "Lotus Temple" and later renamed "Kaiyuan Temple" in 738. The temple houses the Five Tathāgathas from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism. In 2021, it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for its significance in medieval global maritime trade. Notably, it was one of the few surviving Hindu temples in mainland China. The temple also features fragments and an icon of Lord Vishnu from a Vishnu temple built in 1283 by the Tamil Ainnurruvar Valanjiyar Merchant community. The carvings, made in South Indian style, indicate cultural exchange between China and South India through maritime trade. The temple's history reflects the influence of the Silk trade, with South Indians bringing knowledge from China to India, and China impacting South Indian culture.

Shrine to the Five Tathagathas (五方佛 Wǔfāngfó) or Five Wisdom Buddhas (五智如来 Wǔzhì Rúlái), in Kaiyuan Temple (開元寺 or 开元寺) in Quanzhou, Fujian, China by Nyarlathotep1001 via wikimedia commons