Srivijaya Empire
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Srivijaya, a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on Sumatra, significantly influenced Southeast Asia from the 7th to 11th century AD. Renowned for its maritime prowess, Srivijaya developed complex technology and fostered a booming trade economy. Interactions with neighboring powers like Mataram, Khom, and Champa, as well as trade agreements with China and cultural links with Bengal and the Islamic Caliphate, cemented Srivijaya's regional hegemony. Despite initial perceptions of being primarily maritime-based, recent research suggests Srivijaya was land-focused, utilizing fleets for logistical support. However, naval strategy was pivotal in maintaining control, transitioning from coercion to raiding fleets. Eventually, raids by the Chola Empire led to Srivijaya's demise in 1025 CE. Forgotten for centuries, its existence was rediscovered by French historian George Cœdès in 1918, highlighting its enduring historical significance.
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Duration: 7th–13th century
‍Language: Old Malay and Sanskrit
Religion:  Hinduism, Buddhism
Preceded by: Kantoli Rule
Succeeded by: Melayu Kingdom
Social Scale: Monarchy

Malacca Sultanate
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‍The Malacca Sultanate, founded around 1400 by Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah, marked a pivotal era in Singapore's history. At its zenith in the 15th century, Malacca emerged as a thriving transhipment port, extending its influence across the Malay Peninsula, the Riau Islands, and northern Sumatra. As an international trading hub, Malacca fostered Islamic learning and cultural exchange, contributing to the development of Malay language, literature, and arts. This period saw the rise of Classical Malay as the lingua franca of Maritime Southeast Asia and the widespread use of Jawi script for intellectual discourse. Despite succumbing to Portuguese conquest in 1511, Malacca's political and cultural legacy endured through its influence on successor states like Johor and Perak. Today, the Sultanate's heritage remains an integral part of Malay-Muslim civilization, shaping concepts of sovereignty and kingship through enduring principles like Daulat.
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Duration: 15th-16th Century
Language: Classical Malay
Religion:  Sunni Islam
Preceded by: Singapura Kingdom
Succeeded by: Johor Sultanate, Perak Sultanate
Social Scale: Absolute monarchy

Bruneian Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Brunei, situated on the northern coast of Borneo island in Southeast Asia, emerged as a Malay sultanate around the 15th century. Initially a vassal-state to the Javanese-centered Majapahit Empire, Brunei's influence grew substantially after the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in the 16th century. Under Sultan Bolkiah's rule, Brunei extended its control over coastal areas of northwest Borneo, the Philippines, and even parts of Mindanao. The empire's influence reached as far as the Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan, establishing dynastic relations with neighboring Malay sultanates and developing trade and political ties across insular Southeast Asia. However, internal strife, European colonial expansion, and piracy led to Brunei's gradual decline by the 17th century. In 1888, Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin sought British protection, marking the beginning of Brunei's status as a British protectorate until its independence in 1984.
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Duration: 1363/68–1888/1906
Language: Brunei Malay, Old Malay, Old Tagalog, Kapampangan, Arabic and Bornean languages
Religion:  Sunni Islam
‍Preceded by: Majapahit
‍Succeeded by: Brunei, North Borneo, Crown Colony of Labuan, Raj of Sarawak
Social Scale: Monarchy

Kingdoms

‍Dating back to the first millennium CE, early states in the region were significantly shaped by Indian cultural elements, particularly Hinduism and Buddhism. Indian settlements and trade routes established connections between the Indian subcontinent and the Malay Peninsula, evident in archaeological finds such as the Buddha-Gupta stone and references in ancient Indian literature. The early Malay kingdoms, including Langkasuka and Gangga Negara, were integral parts of the regional trade network, with Chinese pottery shards and Sanskrit inscriptions providing evidence of their Indianized culture. The pinnacle of Indian influence came with the Buddhist Srivijaya empire, which dominated much of the Malay Peninsula from the 7th to the 13th century. However, the Chola Empire's invasions in the 11th century and the spread of Islam led to the decline of Srivijaya's power and the emergence of Islamic sultanates in the 14th century. Despite subsequent European colonization, notably by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British, Indian cultural elements remained ingrained in Malaysian society, reflecting a rich history of cultural exchange and integration.

Religious history
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The religious history of Malaysia is a testament to its rich cultural heritage, shaped by interactions with diverse civilizations. Early Indian settlements and trade in the first millennium CE introduced Hinduism and Buddhism to the Malay Peninsula, leaving a lasting impact on its language and culture, evident in the use of Sanskrit writing. Indianized Hindu Malay kingdoms like Langkasuka and Gangga Negara further solidified the presence of these religions. Subsequently, the Buddhist Srivijaya empire dominated much of the region between the 7th and 13th centuries, facilitating the spread of Buddhism. Meanwhile, the relationship between Srivijaya and the Tamil Chola empire underscores the dynamic interplay of Indian and Southeast Asian powers. In the 14th century, Islam emerged, leading to the establishment of Islamic sultanates such as Malacca, reshaping the religious landscape. Islam's influence eventually became predominant, defining Malaysia as a Muslim-majority nation. Colonialism later introduced further religious diversity with the arrival of Europeans and immigrant workers from China and India, enriching Malaysia's multicultural fabric.