Indonesia

Indonesia, as a sprawling archipelago straddling the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, has long been a vibrant center of trade and cultural exchange in the region. Its strategic location along crucial maritime routes has historically attracted merchants from neighboring countries, including India, China, and Arab nations.

Kingdom Profiles

Srivijaya Empire
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Srivijaya, a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on Sumatra, significantly influenced Southeast Asia from the 7th to 11th century AD. Renowned for its maritime prowess, Srivijaya developed complex technology and fostered a booming trade economy. Interactions with neighboring powers like Mataram, Khom, and Champa, as well as trade agreements with China and cultural links with Bengal and the Islamic Caliphate, cemented Srivijaya's regional hegemony. Despite initial perceptions of being primarily maritime-based, recent research suggests Srivijaya was land-focused, utilizing fleets for logistical support. However, naval strategy was pivotal in maintaining control, transitioning from coercion to raiding fleets. Eventually, raids by the Chola Empire led to Srivijaya's demise in 1025 CE. Forgotten for centuries, its existence was rediscovered by French historian George Cœdès in 1918, highlighting its enduring historical significance.
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Duration: 7th–13th century
‍Language: Old Malay and Sanskrit
Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism
Preceded by: Kantoli Rule
Succeeded by: Melayu Kingdom
Social Scale: Monarchy

Sailendra dynasty

The Shailendra dynasty, an Indianized ruling family that emerged in 8th-century Java, marked a cultural renaissance in the region. Known for their promotion of Mahayana Buddhism, the Shailendras adorned the Kedu Plain of Central Java with magnificent Buddhist monuments, including the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ruling vast maritime territories while also engaging in agriculture, they held sway over the Mataram Kingdom in Central Java and, at times, the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra. Their inscriptions, using Old Javanese, Old Malay, and Sanskrit, reflect their political and religious significance, hinting at possible connections to Sumatra's Srivijaya. Marriage alliances with Srivijaya ensured stability, while conflicts with Java's Sanjaya dynasty ultimately led to their decline in Java. However, their legacy endured in Sumatra, Bali, and beyond, shaping the region's cultural landscape for centuries to come.
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Duration: 15th-16th Century
Language: Classical Malay
Religion: Sunni Islam
Preceded by: Singapura Kingdom
Succeeded by: Johor Sultanate, Perak Sultanate
Social Scale: Absolute monarchy

Kediri kingdom
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The Kediri Kingdom, thriving from 1042 to 1222 in East Java, was a vibrant Hindu-Buddhist realm renowned for its cultural and literary achievements. Despite limited archaeological remnants, this era witnessed significant advancements in classical literature, exemplified by masterpieces like Mpu Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha and Mpu Panuluh's Gatotkacasraya. Situated near modern Kediri city, the kingdom's capital flourished in the Brantas River valley, fostering trade with China and India. Chinese records, referring to Kediri as Tsao-wa or Chao-wa (Java), attest to frequent trade and cultural exchanges. As Srivijaya's influence waned in the 11th century, Kediri emerged as a regional power, controlling spice trade routes and fostering agricultural prosperity. The kingdom's rich cultural tapestry, depicted in literary works and historical accounts, portrays a society characterized by vibrant festivals, sophisticated governance, and artistic brilliance, marking Kediri's enduring legacy in Indonesian history.
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Duration: 1042–1222
Language: Old Javanese, Sanskrit
Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism, Animism
‍Preceded by: Kahuripan
‍Succeeded by: Singhasari
Social Scale: Monarchy

During the early Indonesian period, spanning from the 2nd century onwards, the region witnessed a profound cultural exchange facilitated by the bustling Indian Ocean trade routes. India's influence on Indonesia during this time was particularly significant, as evidenced by references to Hindu kingdoms in Java and Sumatra in ancient Sanskrit writings. This exchange of cultures was not merely limited to trade but extended to the spread of religion, art, and architecture. Indianized dynasties like the Shailendras and Srivijaya played crucial roles in promoting Hinduism and Buddhism, constructing monumental temples such as Borobudur and Prambanan. The adoption of Indian scripts and languages, including Sanskrit and Old Malay, further underscored the depth of this cultural assimilation. Moreover, diplomatic ties and matrimonial alliances between Indian and Indonesian rulers fostered mutual understanding and cooperation, contributing to the region's political stability. This era laid the foundation for Indonesia's diverse cultural landscape, blending indigenous traditions with Indian influences, which continues to shape the country's identity today.
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Kingdoms

For over a millennium, from the 5th to the 15th centuries, the Indonesian archipelago was home to various Indianized states and empires, independent politically but deeply influenced by Indian culture. Notable among these was the Buddhist Malay kingdom of Srivijaya, with its capital at Palembang in southern Sumatra, which dominated trade routes between India and China and saw Buddhism firmly established within its territories. The rise of the Sailendra dynasty in eastern Java saw the construction of impressive temples like Borobudur, the largest Buddhist temple in the world, while the Mataram kingdom challenged Srivijaya's supremacy. The spice trade became increasingly vital, with Kediri emerging as a major trading nation in the region. In the 13th century, Singhasari rose in eastern Java, followed by the establishment of the Majapahit empire, which controlled vast territories across Java, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and beyond, exerting significant influence over the region. Throughout this period, cultural exchange, trade, and diplomatic relations with India shaped the trajectory of these Indonesian kingdoms and empires, leaving a lasting legacy on their societies and cultural heritage.

Religious History
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Religion in Indonesia reflects a complex interplay of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influences intertwined with cultural and political developments. Indian culture's early penetration of the archipelago from the 2nd century laid the foundation for Hindu kingdoms in Java and Sumatra, such as Tarumanagara, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, which thrived between the 5th and 15th centuries. Their legacy is evident in monumental temple complexes like Borobudur and Prambanan, showcasing a fusion of Indian and local architectural styles. Maritime powers like Srivijaya dominated the political landscape, fostering trade and cultural exchange across Southeast Asia. However, by the 11th century, Srivijaya's influence waned, giving rise to Majapahit in Java, the region's last major Hindu-Buddhist empire. With Majapahit's decline, Islam gradually supplanted Hindu-Buddhist traditions, particularly in Sumatra and Java. European colonization, notably by the Dutch East India Company, introduced further religious and political transformations, ushering in a new era marked by colonial rule alongside the spread of Christianity and Islam.

Art and Architecture
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The art and architecture of ancient Indonesia bear the indelible marks of cultural exchange and synthesis, reflecting a rich tapestry of influences from various civilizations. From as early as the 2nd century, Indian culture permeated the archipelago, shaping artistic expressions in profound ways. Hindu-Buddhist states like Tarumanagara, Srivijaya, and Sailendra flourished between the 5th and 15th centuries, leaving behind awe-inspiring monuments such as Borobudur and Prambanan. These architectural marvels, with their intricate carvings and towering structures, exemplify the fusion of Indian artistic motifs with local traditions. The Borobudur temple complex, for instance, showcases not only Buddhist iconography but also incorporates indigenous Javanese design elements, illustrating the synthesis of cultures. Moreover, maritime powers like Srivijaya facilitated cultural exchange through trade routes, further enriching artistic expressions with influences from China, Southeast Asia, and beyond. This interplay of diverse cultural influences culminated in the creation of unique art and architecture that continues to captivate and inspire to this day.

Exploring the Heritage wealth

The map showcases cultural sites influenced or connected to India, dispersed throughout Indonesia

Prambanan Temple

Coordinates: -7.751754822519585, 110.49149958164122

Prambanan is a 9th-century Hindu temple compound in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimūrti—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, it is the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia. The compound originally had 240 temples showcasing ancient Javanese Hindu art. Today, eight main temples and eight small shrines are reconstructed, while the rest are ruins. The Shiva temple is the tallest, housing a statue of Shiva Mahadeva. Other main temples are dedicated to Brahma and Vishnu. The complex includes Vahana temples for Nandi, Garuda, and Hamsa, Apit temples, Kelir temples, Patok temples, and Pervara temples in concentric rows. The architecture reflects Hindu cosmology, mirroring the hierarchy of the universe. The compound is a model of the Hindu universe based on Vastu Shastra and resembles the holy mountain Meru.

Prambanan temple, Central Java, Indonesia by Jakub Hałun Via Wikimedia Commons

Candi Prambanan - 060 Rama and Sita, Brahma Temple by Photo Dharma from Penang, Malaysia Via Wikimedia Commons

Prambanan temple, Central Java, Indonesia by Jakub Hałun Via Wikimedia Commons

Candi Prambanan - 029 Reflecting, Siva Temple by Photo Dharma from Penang, Malaysia Via Wikimedia Commons

Borobudur Temple

Coordinates: -7.607618566881844, 110.20375129513366

Borobudur is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Central Java, Indonesia, constructed during the Sailendra Dynasty. Built with gray andesite-like stone, the temple has nine stacked platforms, featuring 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. Pilgrims navigate stairways and corridors adorned with narrative reliefs. Borobudur is known for its extensive Buddhist reliefs and is the largest Buddhist temple globally. It was constructed in the 8th century, abandoned in the 14th century, and rediscovered in 1814. Borobudur has undergone restoration and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, attracting pilgrims and tourists alike. The name Borobudur is thought to mean "the city of Buddhas" and is derived from Sanskrit and Javanese terms. The temple is located on the Kedu Plain, surrounded by twin volcanoes and rivers. The ancient lake hypothesis, suggesting Borobudur was built on a lotus flower floating on a lake, has been debunked by archaeological studies, confirming the absence of a lake during its construction.

Borobudur-Temple-Park Indonesia Stupas-of-Borobudur, by CEphoto, Uwe Aranas via Wikimedia commons

Terrace on the temple of Borobudur 1913 by Fran Hurley State Library of New South Wales via Wikimedia Commons

Temples, Borobudur - UNESCO preservation by UNESCO Archives via wikimedia commons

Borobudur, Java, Indonesia by Jakub Hałun via Wikimedia Commons

Uluwatu Temple

Coordinates: -8.82901739332326, 115.08490924227767

Uluwatu Temple, also known as Pura Luhur Uluwatu, is a Balinese Hindu sea temple situated on a 70-meter-high cliff in Uluwatu, Bali. Dedicated to Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa in his manifestation as Rudra, it is considered one of the sad kahyangan. Built in the 11th century by Javanese sage Empu Kuturan and expanded by Dang Hyang Nirartha, it earned the epithet "Luhur" as the sage attained moksha here. The temple is home to mischievous monkeys known for snatching visitors' belongings. The site also hosts daily Kecak dance performances based on the Ramayana at 6 pm, offering a backdrop of the scenic sunset.

Luhur Uluwatu Temple, Bali by Jakub Hałun viw wikimedia commons

Uluwatu Temple clif by Jorge Franganillo via wikimedia commons

Pura Luhur Uluwatu 2017 by Paskuu via Wikimedia Commons

Goa Gajah Temple

Coordinates: -8.523211205347033, 115.28716418136888

Goa Gajah, or Elephant Cave, located near Ubud, Bali, Indonesia, is a 9th-century sanctuary believed to have been built for spiritual meditation. It features a mix of Hindu and Buddhist imagery, including symbols of Shiva and images of Ganesha, as well as carvings of stupas and chattra. Rediscovered by Dutch archaeologists in 1923, the site is characterized by menacing faces carved into the stone to ward off evil spirits. The entrance is accessed by a long flight of stairs, leading to a small temple with a stone statue of Ganesha. Goa Gajah was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List in 1995 but was later removed in 2015.

Goa Gajah temple, Bedulu, Bali, Indonesia by Jakub Hałun via Wikimedia Commons

Goa Gajah temple cave, Bedulu, Bali, Indonesia by Jakub Hałun via Wikimedia Commons

Dutch soldier at the Pura Goa Gajah elephant cave by C.J. (Cees) Taillie (Fotograaf/photographer). Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen via Wikimedia Commons

PURA ULUN DANU BERATAN

Coordinates: -8.274925880564759, 115.16680193747058

Pura Ulun Danu Beratan, also known as Pura Bratan, is a significant Hindu Shaivite temple in Bali, Indonesia, situated on the shores of Lake Bratan. Built in 1633, it serves as a major water temple, with its lake providing irrigation for the region. The temple complex follows the traditional Balinese design with three courtyards, featuring intricately decorated gates. Dedicated to the water, lake, and river goddess Dewi Danu, it includes a remarkable 11-storey pelinggih meru dedicated to Shiva and Parvathi. Additionally, the site boasts a unique Buddhist stupa, symbolizing religious harmony, located outside the main temple complex.

Kalasan Temple from the north-east by Crisco 1492 via wikimedia commons

Kalasan Temple

Coordinates: -7.767037884168516, 110.47233649513552

Candi Kalasan, an 8th-century Buddhist temple in Java, Indonesia, was built based on the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD. Erected by Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka, it was dedicated to the goddess Tara, with a vihara (monastery) for Buddhist monks. The temple, the oldest in the Prambanan Plain, exhibits a cross-shaped design with rich decorations, including carvings of Kala giant and scenes from svargaloka. Despite renovation during the Dutch colonial era, the temple's current condition is poor compared to nearby temples. The missing large statue of Boddhisattvadevi Tara and traces of vajralepa (diamond plaster) on the outer wall are notable features.

Kalasan Temple from the north-east by Crisco 1492 via wikimedia commons

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De Candi Kalasan TMnr 10015965 from Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen via wikimedia commons

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De Candi Kalasan TMnr 60037385 from Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen via wikimedia commons

Mendut Temple

Coordinates: -7.605033061974038, 110.22946225834619

Mendut, a ninth-century Buddhist temple in Central Java, Indonesia, is the oldest among the temples of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut. Built during the reign of King Indra of the Sailendra dynasty, Mendut was restored in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The temple's square base, facing northwest, features Makara statues on projecting stairs and bas-reliefs narrating Jataka fables. The exterior walls showcase Boddhisattvas and other Buddhist figures, while the main chamber houses three large stone statues representing Dhyani Buddha Vairocana and Boddhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani. The annual Vesak ritual involves a mass Buddhist prayer and circumambulation from Mendut to Borobudur. The temple is visited for its spiritual significance, believed to fulfill wishes, particularly for childless couples praying to the bas-relief of Hariti, a symbol of fertility.