Cambodia

Cambodia, located in the heart of mainland Southeast Asia, played a significant role in the Indian Ocean trade network through its access to the Mekong River and the Gulf of Thailand. As part of the broader maritime trading system, Cambodian kingdoms such as the Khmer Empire engaged in commerce with Indian, Chinese, and Southeast Asian merchants, exchanging goods like rice, timber, gold, and precious stones. This trade facilitated the exchange of cultural ideas, religions, and artistic influences between Cambodia and other Indian Ocean societies.

Kingdom Profiles

Funan Empire
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Funan was a significant Indianized state in mainland Southeast Asia from the 1st to 6th century CE, centred around the Mekong Delta. Despite its historical importance, the original name used by its inhabitants remains unknown. Scholars debate the Funanese ethnic composition, with hypotheses ranging from Mon-Khmer to Austronesian, or a blend of various ethnicities. While its linguistic identity is uncertain, archaeological findings suggest rich cultural exchanges with Roman, Chinese, and Indian traders, indicating its status as a powerful trading state. Although ancient Chinese accounts depict Funan as a unified polity, modern research suggests it may have been a network of city-states. Sites like Óc Eo and Angkor Borei provide evidence of Funan's economic and political significance, revealing a complex and dynamic society.
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Duration: 225 - 639 CE
‍Language: Unclear
Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism
Preceded by: Early Mekong Delta People
Succeeded by: Chenla Kingdom
Social Scale: Monarchy

Chenla Kingdom

Chenla, succeeding Funan and preceding the Khmer Empire, existed from the late 6th to early 9th century in Indochina. Scholars debate its unified nature, seeing it as a series of confederations. Originally thought to center around Mount Phu Kao in Champasak Province, Laos, linked to Champa, this view is contested. Bhavavarman and Chitrasena established dominance by attacking Funan together. By the 8th century CE, Chenla split into "Land Chenla" in Laos and "Water Chenla" in Cambodia. Land Chenla traded with the Tang dynasty, while Water Chenla faced threats from Champa, Mataram, and pirates, leading to the emergence of the Khmer kingdom amidst instability.
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Duration: 6th Century to 9th Century Language: Khmer, Sanskrit
Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism
Preceded by: Funan Empire
Succeeded by: Angkor Kingdom
Social Scale: Absolute monarchy

Khmer Dynasty
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The Khmer Empire, or Kambuja, thrived as a Hindu-Buddhist realm in Southeast Asia from 802 to 1431. Anchored by hydraulic cities in present-day northern Cambodia, notably Angkor, its influence spanned mainland Southeast Asia and even reached southern China. Led by Prince Jayavarman II, the empire's zenith saw remarkable architectural achievements like Angkor Wat and the Bayon. Despite its fall to the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1431, scholars debate its decline, potentially linked to environmental factors damaging the hydraulic infrastructure. Nonetheless, the empire's legacy endures through monumental structures and pioneering advancements, including what researchers propose as the world's first healthcare system with 102 hospitals.
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Duration: 802–1431
Language: Sanskrit, Old Khmer
Religion: Hinduism, Buddhism
Preceded by: Chenla
Succeeded by: Post Angkor Cambodia
Social Scale: Absolute monarchy

Ancient Cambodia was deeply intertwined with Indian trade networks, facilitating a profound exchange of goods, ideas, and culture. Situated at the crossroads of maritime and overland trade routes, Cambodia served as a crucial intermediary between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Indian merchants brought valuable commodities such as spices, textiles, and precious metals to Cambodia, while also introducing religious and cultural practices that left an indelible mark on Cambodian society. The influence of cultural exchange can be seen in various aspects of Cambodian life, including religion, language, art, and architecture. Hinduism and Buddhism, which originated in India, became integral parts of Cambodian spirituality, shaping the beliefs and rituals of its people. Architectural marvels like Angkor Wat, with its intricate carvings depicting scenes from Hindu epics, bear testimony to this cultural fusion. Furthermore, Sanskrit, the classical language of ancient India, exerted a significant influence on the development of Khmer script and literature.
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Kingdoms

In Cambodia's rich history, the Kingdom of Funan stands as a testament to early Indianized states, with legendary tales of its founding rooted in the marriage of Brahmin Kaundinya I to princess Soma, daughter of a local Nāga clan chieftain. Flourishing for 500 years, Funan engaged in prosperous trade with India and China, boasting an advanced canal system and a cultured elite steeped in Indian arts and sciences. Following Funan's decline in the late 6th century CE, the Hindu-Khmer state of Chenla emerged, lasting until the 9th century. However, it was the rise of Angkor under King Jayavarman II in the 9th century that marked a significant epoch. Establishing Angkor as the capital, Jayavarman II initiated a cult identifying the king with the Hindu deity Shiva, leading to Angkor's zenith under Jayavarman VII in the 12th century. Angkor's fame extended across Southeast Asia, culminating in the construction of the iconic Angkor Wat temple. This period encapsulates Cambodia's prominence on the Southeast Asian mainland until the 12th century, while concurrently, maritime empires flourished in Indonesia, deeply influenced by Indian culture.

Religious History
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Religion played a crucial role in ancient Cambodia, heavily influenced by the religious traditions of India. The arrival of Hinduism and Buddhism from India significantly shaped Cambodian society, particularly during the Khmer Empire's reign. Hinduism, introduced as early as the 1st century CE, became prominent, with Cambodian rulers often associating themselves with Hindu deities. The Khmer Empire's capital, Angkor, boasted grand Hindu temples dedicated to gods like Shiva and Vishnu, such as the iconic Angkor Wat. Additionally, Buddhism gained traction in Cambodia, coexisting alongside Hinduism and eventually becoming the dominant religion. Indian religious texts, rituals, and architectural styles profoundly impacted Cambodian religious practices and temple construction. India's cultural and religious influence facilitated the spread of spiritual ideas and fostered a deep-seated connection between ancient Cambodia and the Indian subcontinent.

Art and Architecture
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Ancient Cambodia's art and architecture were profoundly influenced by India, shaping its cultural landscape for centuries. From the iconic temples of Angkor to the intricate sculptures adorning its structures, Cambodian art bore the imprint of Indian aesthetics and religious motifs. India's impact on Cambodian architecture is evident in the majestic Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument in the world, showcasing elements of Hindu temple architecture and iconography. Similarly, the Bayon temple with its enigmatic smiling faces reflects the fusion of Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Moreover, Indian epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata were depicted in Cambodian art, illustrating the cultural exchange between the two regions. India's influence extended beyond architecture, permeating Cambodian art forms such as sculpture, dance, and literature, contributing to the rich tapestry of Cambodian cultural heritage.

Exploring the Heritage wealth

The map showcases cultural sites influenced or connected to India, dispersed throughout Singapore

Angkor Wat

Coordinates: 13.412427542095799, 103.86701788172712

Angkor Wat is a temple complex in Cambodia, situated in the ancient Khmer capital city of Angkor. Built by King Suryavarman II in the 12th century, it was initially a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu but later transformed into a "Hindu-Buddhist" temple. Recognized as the world's largest religious structure, Angkor Wat combines Khmer temple architecture plans, representing Mount Meru from Hindu mythology. Surrounded by a moat and outer wall, it features three rectangular galleries with towers at the center. Despite scholarly debates on its westward orientation, the temple is celebrated for its architecture, bas-reliefs, and devatas. The name "Angkor Wat" means "Temple City" in Khmer, with "Angkor" signifying "city" or "capital city" and "Wat" referring to "temple grounds." Originally called Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka, it translates to "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu."

Ankor Wat temple by Kheng Vungvuthy via wikimedia commons

Angkor Wat from 1906

Pre-1897: Angkor-Wat Main entrance from the west-exterior facade. Photo: Emile Gsell, Colonial Office via Archives Nationales

This drawing of the temple’s façade was made by Henri Mouhout, a French explorer who visited the site in the mid 19th Century and could not believe his eyes (Credit: Wikipedia)Via BBC, Culture

Asuras from Samudra manthan Angkor wat by Olaf Tausch

Bayon

Coordinates: 13.441241347081338, 103.85908598542238

The Bayon is a Khmer temple in Angkor, Cambodia, built in the late 12th or early 13th century as the state temple of King Jayavarman VII. Located at the center of Angkor Thom, its distinctive feature is the multitude of serene stone faces of Buddha, possibly modeled on the king's face. Described as the "most striking expression of the baroque style" of Khmer architecture, it contrasts with the classical style of Angkor Wat. Originally named Jayagiri, meaning "Victory Mountain" or "Mountain of Brahma," it was later called Bayon, possibly derived from the celestial palace of Indra. The first syllable "Ba" suggests a protector or defensor.

Prasat Bayon, by Dmitry A. Mottl via Wikimedia commons

Le Bayon (Angkor Thom) by Jean-Pierre Dalbéra from Paris, France Via Wikimedia Commons

Stone Carving at Bayon Temple by FullertonCollegeBeedrill Via Wikimedia Commons

Tower Faces, Bayon Temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia by Kirk Siang, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Stone Carving at Bayon Temple by Krzysztof Golik Via Wikimedia Commons

Banteay Srei

Coordinates: 13.600293703639451, 103.9629145913458

Banteay Srei is a 10th-century Hindu temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia, dedicated to Shiva and Parvati. Situated near the hill of Phnom Dei, 25 km northeast of the main group of Angkor temples, it is constructed mainly of red sandstone, allowing for intricate wall carvings. The temple's small scale, unique among Angkorian structures, and its elaborate decorations make it a popular tourist destination, often referred to as a "precious gem" or the "jewel of Khmer art."

Banteay Srei January 2015 by Olaf Tausch via wikimedia commons

Banteay Srei temple by JJ Ying jjying' via wikimedia commons

Banteay Srei by Liftold (thảo luận) via wikimedia commons

Preah Khan

Coordinates: 13.46210666830424, 103.87156021084493

Preah Khan is a 12th-century temple in Angkor, Cambodia, built by King Jayavarman VII to honor his father. Situated northeast of Angkor Thom, it is associated with the Jayatataka baray. Serving as the center of a significant organization with nearly 100,000 officials and servants, the temple features a flat design with successive rectangular galleries around a Buddhist sanctuary, accompanied by Hindu satellite temples and later additions. Similar to Ta Prohm, Preah Khan remains largely unrestored, allowing trees and vegetation to grow among the ruins.

Angkor, Preah Khan by Marcin Konsek via wikimedia commons

Garuda bridge by Louis Delaporte in 1873

Ascetics at Preah Khan by Photo Dharma from Penang, Malaysia

Pre Rup

Coordinates: 13.435142391530041, 103.92056788172762

Pre Rup is a Hindu temple in Angkor, Cambodia, serving as the state temple of Khmer king Rajendravarman and dedicated in 961 or early 962. The temple, constructed with a combination of brick, laterite, and sandstone, is known for its pleasing reddish tone, especially in the morning and late afternoon sunlight. The name "Pre Rup" means "turn the body," reflecting the belief that funeral rituals were conducted at the temple, with the ashes ritually rotated during the service. Located south of the East Baray, Pre Rup is aligned with the East Mebon temple on a north-south axis. The temple features a square layout, two perimeter walls, cross-shaped gopuras, libraries, distinct galleries, and a squared pyramid with tiers and towers, including statues of deities. Despite some later additions, the temple remains a remarkable example of 10th-century architecture.

Angkor, Siem Reap, Cambodia: Ruins of Pre Rup by CEphoto, Uwe Aranas via wikimedia commons

Stone lions loom over the lower levels of the laterite and brick ruins of the large Pre Rup temple mount. by McKay Savage from London, UK via wikimedia commons

Phnom Krom

Coordinates: 13.285825555953663, 103.8130998843101

Prasat Phnom Krom is an Angkorian temple situated on Phnom Krom in Siem Reap, Cambodia, built in the late 9th century during King Yasovarman's reign. Dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, the temple faces east and is enclosed by a laterite wall with gates at each cardinal direction. Inside, there are small buildings near the east gate, possibly crematoria, and collapsed halls on the north and south sides. The main focus of the temple is three sandstone towers on a platform, with the south tower dedicated to Brahma, the central to Shiva, and the north to Vishnu. The temple's layout resembles that of Phnom Bok, suggesting they were built simultaneously. Despite erosion affecting carvings and lintels, Phnom Krom stands as the southernmost of three hilltop temples constructed during Yasovarman's rule, alongside Phnom Bakheng and Phnom Bok.

Temple of Phnom Krom near Siem Reap by Stefan Fussan via wikimedia commons

Beng Mealea

Coordinates: 13.47577365608612, 104.2287968952224

Beng Mealea, located 40 km east of the main Angkor temple group in Cambodia, is an Angkor Wat period temple built primarily as a Hindu temple with some Buddhist carvings. The temple, constructed with sandstone, remains largely unrestored, with overgrowth and fallen stones. Difficult to access in the past, a road from Siem Reap to Koh Ker now brings more visitors. Its architectural style, resembling Angkor Wat, suggests a construction date during King Suryavarman II's reign in the early 12th century. Despite being smaller than Angkor Wat, Beng Mealea is one of the Khmer Empire's larger temples with a significant town center, surrounded by a large moat. The temple is oriented eastward, featuring three enclosing galleries around a collapsed central sanctuary. Carvings depict Hindu mythological scenes, and causeways showcase balustrades formed by Naga serpent bodies. The extensive use of sandstone, sourced from nearby quarries, has garnered attention for its architectural and decorative quality.

Beng Melea, Cambodia by yeowatzup from Beng Melea, Cambodia via wikimedia commons

Koh Ker

Coordinates: 13.783969349238035, 104.53718920870169

Koh Ker is a remote archaeological site in northern Cambodia, approximately 120 kilometers from Siem Reap and the Angkor site. The jungle-filled area, sparsely populated and covering 81 square kilometers, contains over 180 sanctuaries, but only about two dozen are accessible to tourists due to forest cover and uncleared landmines. Koh Ker served as a significant city of the Khmer Empire, mentioned in inscriptions as Lingapura or Chok Gargyar. Briefly the capital under Jayavarman IV and Harshavarman II (928–944 AD), Koh Ker witnessed ambitious building projects, including an impressive double sanctuary and a unique 36-meter-high seven-tiered pyramid, likely the state temple of Jayavarman IV. The site's sculptures, reaching a pinnacle under Jayavarman IV, have been subject to looting, with some pieces considered stolen art. Koh Ker was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in September 2023. Situated amidst the Dangrek and Kulen mountains, Koh Ker's strategic location on a crucial route of the Khmer Empire is reflected in its historical water infrastructure. The region, relatively dry today, was once dotted with water tanks and canals constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries.

Koh Ker, Cambodia by PsamatheM via wikimedia commons

Old Images of Koh Ker Via highlanderimagesphotography.com

Ta Prohm

Coordinates: 13.435086239778036, 103.88928261084143

Ta Prohm, near Siem Reap, Cambodia, is a temple built in the late 12th and early 13th centuries by Khmer King Jayavarman VII. Originally called Rajavihara, it served as a Mahayana Buddhist monastery and learning center dedicated to the king's mother. Also known as the "Tomb Raider Temple" due to its appearance in the film Lara Croft: Tomb Raider, Ta Prohm is famous for being overgrown by trees and jungle vegetation, a result of its abandonment. The temple, lacking mortar, features trees rooted in its stones, making it a popular attraction. Ta Prohm has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1992.

Ta Prohm, Buddhist temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia by Supanut Arunoprayote. via Wikimedia commons

Ta Prohm, Angkor. Lintel decoration. by L. Shyamal via wikimedia commons

Ta Prohm, Cambodia by yeowatzup via wikimedia commons

Preah Vihear Temple

Coordinates: 14.390547738144525, 104.68021735106393

Preah Vihear Temple is an ancient Khmer Hindu temple located atop a 525-meter cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains, Preah Vihear province, Cambodia. Built by the Khmer Empire, the temple offers a spectacular setting with panoramic views. Unusual for Khmer temples, it follows a long north–south axis and displays elements of various architectural styles due to modifications by successive kings. After a dispute, the International Court of Justice ruled in 1962 that the temple is in Cambodia. Preah Vihear was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site on July 7, 2008.

Preah Vihear Temple Cambodia by Tetsuya Kitahata via Wikimedia commons

Banteay Samré

Coordinates: 13.442118306708617, 103.95915808139732

Banteay Samré is an Angkor temple located east of the East Baray in Cambodia, constructed during the early 12th century under the reigns of Suryavarman II and Yasovarman II. This Hindu temple, named after the ancient Samré people, shares materials with Banteay Srei and features a distinct single ogival tower in the Angkor Wat style. Despite lacking inscriptions about its foundation, the temple was expertly restored by Maurice Glaize from 1936 to 1944, showcasing similarities to other regional temples like Thommanon and Chau Say Tevoda. It is believed to have been built by a high court official during King Suryavarman II's rule.

Banteay Samre. Angkor, Siem Reap, Cambodia by LBM1948 via wikimedia commons

Banteay Samré in Angkor by Christophe95 via wikimedia commons

Phimeanakas Temple

Coordinates: 13.445959843051542, 103.85613145104513

Phimeanakas, also known as Vimeanakas, is a Hindu temple in the Khleang style at Angkor, Cambodia. Constructed at the end of the 10th century during the reign of Rajendravarman and completed by Suryavarman I, it takes the form of a three-tier pyramid with a tower on top. Situated within the walled enclosure of the Royal Palace of Angkor Thom, it served as the focal point of Suryavarman I's capital. The temple was surrounded by a wall and included the Southern and Northern Khleangs. Legend has it that the king spent the first watch of every night in the tower with a woman symbolizing a Nāga, and calamity would strike if either the king or the Nāga failed to appear.

Phimeanakas, Khmer temple constructed in the 10th century by Diego Delso via wikimedia commons

West Mebon

Coordinates: 13.434347933303204, 103.80025205289229

The West Mebon is a temple in Angkor, Cambodia, situated in the center of the West Baray, the largest reservoir in the Angkor area. Its construction date is uncertain, but evidence suggests it was built during the 11th Century, under the reigns of King Suryavarman I and Udayadityavarman II. During the dry season, the temple is accessible by land, but in the rainy season, when the baray's waters rise, it becomes an island. Symbolically, the West Mebon's placement amid vast waters enhances the Hindu religious symbolism of temples surrounded by moats representing the sea of creation.

Tonle Om South Gate Bridge by Balon Greyjoy via wikimedia commons

Angkorian Temple of West Mebon by Stefan Fussan via wikimedia commons

A reclining bronze Vishnu statue at Angkor park’s West Mebon monument in 1936 (EFEO) Via Camboadia Daily

Baksei Chamkrong

Coordinates: 13.425608342433293, 103.85836916638607

Baksei Chamkrong is a small Hindu temple in the Angkor complex, Cambodia, dedicated to Shiva. Built with durable materials like bricks and laterite, it features sandstone decorations. The name translates to "The Bird Who Shelters Under Its Wings" from a legend where a king sought refuge under a bird's wings during a siege. Constructed during the reign of Yasovarman and completed by Rajendravarman II, the temple showcases a carved lintel of Indra on his three-headed elephant. The pyramid-shaped structure has vanished, and the brick sanctuary tower stands 13 meters tall with blind doors and an inscription praising Khmer kings.

Baksei Chamkrong. Siem Reap Province, Cambodia by Marcin Konsek / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0